The Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire lasted from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 467 A.D. to 1453 A.D., when Constantinople was lost to the Ottoman Turks. In its thousand year history Byzantium had many important rulers although Justinian and Theodora were perhaps the greatest among them. After Western Rome fell the Eastern emperors still saw themselves as rulers of all of Rome. In the year 527 Justinian, succeeded his uncle as emperor and Justinian make this a reality. After many campaigns lead by his best general, Belisarius, Justinian had conquered all the territory Rome ever ruled and could now truly call himself a Caesar. Justinian did not rule the empire alone, his wife Theodora also worked with foreign leaders, passed laws, and took part in politics. In 532, during the Nika Rebellion, Theodora convinced Justinian to stay in the city when he had wanted to flee to safety. To rule his vast empire Justinian created a set of laws know as the Justinian code. Justinian created the code from old Roman laws that still applied for Justinians time. Byzantium was constantly attacked from its beginning to its end. Thus, the Byzantines became skilled warriors and shrewd diplomats. They employed tactics such as diplomacy, bribery, and military power to fight their foes. Like the fallen Eastern Empire they found that they could trust mercenaries, sometimes even more than their own soldiers. A company of Scandinavian mercenaries known as the Varangian Guard remained under the control of the Byzantine emperor and they could be trusted far more than Byzantine soldiers. The Byzantine Imperial flag is yellow with a double-headed eagle wearing black crowns. The double-headed eagle was the symbol of the Palaiologos, the last Byzantine dynasty to rule from Constantinople from 1258-1453. The double-headed eagle symbolized the dynastys interests in both Asia and Europe, and was kept despite the fact that nearly all of the Empires Asian possessions were seized by the Ottomans. The two headed eagle would eventually become identified with the empire itself, and with institutions outside the Byzantine Empire that were connected to Constantinople. Thus, it is not surprising that the flag was in use by the Russian Czars and the Greek Orthodox Church. Another flag of the Byzantine Empire is a combination of the St. George cross (which is a red cross on a white field) and the arms of the Palaiologos family (yellow crosses on a red field). The four symbols in the corners of the two crosses in the arms of the Palaiologos family could be either firesteels, which were used in badges of the Order of the Golden Fleece, or as the Greek letter Î’, which makes up the initial letters of the Paleologuess motto: Î’Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ »ÃŽ µÃâ€¦Ãâ€š Î’Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ »ÃŽ µÃâ€°ÃŽ ½ Î’Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ »ÃŽ µÃâ€¦Ãâ€°ÃŽ ½ Î’Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ »ÃŽ µÃâ€¦ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ½ which means: King of Kings, ruling over Kings. The Byzantine Empire also developed its own unique culture that separated it from its Roman ancestors while still preserving Greco-Roman culture and its many great works. Justinian worked to beautify Constantinople by repairing buildings and building a stone wall along its Western half. He also built the Hagia Sophia, which was considered to be the greatest church built in medieval times and still stands today. The Hagia Sophia symbolizes the union of Church and State in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine art was heavily influenced by its Roman ancestors, which was influenced by Greek art. Therefore Byzantine artists never lost sight of their classical heritage. Because of this, the Roman art of creating mosaics was retained by the Byzantines. Byzantine art, while influenced by its ancestors, had developed its unique style. Byzantine painting and mosaics use many colors and figures but the figures were typically seen as stiff or flat. The figures have large eyes with golden or gold tone d backgrounds and were mainly produced for churches and as such the art often portrays people as somber and solemn. Byzantine art also shows only a small attempt made at creating realism. Throughout the centuries Byzantine emperors issued coins in gold (the solidus), silver, and copper. Their picture and name would be imprinted on the coins. The main function of coins was the collection of taxes. Works Cited American Museum of Natural History. American Museum of Natural History. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Awesome Planet. Www.awesomeplanet.org. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Constantinople. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Democracy frontline. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Globe Hoppers. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. New York and London: Hambleton and London, 2003. Print. Herrin, Judith. Byzantium The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2008. Print. The History Guide. Steven Kreis. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Planetfigure. Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Sherrard, Philip. Byzantium. New York: Time-Life Books, 1966. Print. Timothy Ministries. TimothyMinistries.org. Web. 26 Dec. 2009. . Treadgold, Warren. A Concise History of Byzantium. New York: Palgrave, 2001. Print. Weider History Group Online. Weider History Group. Web. 26 Dec. 2009.

Ernest Hemingway Legend Essay

Ernest Hemingway is the ideal of an American legend, rugged, no-nonsense, with personal adventures rivaled only by those in his groundbreaking fiction.   His sparse newspaper style created a literary furor and his success came early and grew until the day he died.   In addition to his canonical novels, Hemingway was also adept at short fiction, including one only six-words long.   Besides, his male bravado, he also managed to capture the alienating effects of modern life in his fiction.   The modern themes of abortion, feminism, and alienation are expressed simply and eloquently in â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† In the short story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants,† Hemingway explores modern alienation in a tense discussion between a couple waiting for a train.   Two Americans in Spain, the man is trying to pressure the woman into some operation, though it is never revealed what this operation is.   Throughout the tense, yet sparse conversation, the man insists she have the operation, yet the woman resists.   It becomes increasingly clear that the operation they discuss may be an abortion, and the tension between the two symbolizes something uniquely modern.   Though abortions have been performed for centuries, it remained taboo until the twentieth century. Hemingway, though never specifically citing abortion as the subject in the story, displays the alienating effect it has on relationships and couples:   â€Å"‘It’s really an awfully simple operation, Jig,’ the man said. ‘It’s not really an operation at all.’   The girl looked at the ground the table legs rested on. ‘I know you wouldn’t mind it, Jig. It’s really not anything. It’s just to let the air in’† (Hemingway).   The man refuses to completely acknowledge the significance of the situation, perhaps suggesting either his refusal or dismissal of Jig’s role as a woman worthy of making her own decision. According to critic Paul Lankin, â€Å"as the man persists in opposing the continuance of Jig’s maternity, he grossly oversimplifies the issue, even to the point of self-contradiction, calling abortion first ‘an awfully simple operation’ and then ‘not really an operation at all’† (234).   His dismissive attitude speaks of a former socially acceptable condescension by men towards women during a time when women were often treated as second class citizens.   This frank discussion between the man and the woman seems only possible in modern literature and seems unimaginable during Victorian times. The tension between the man and the girl is palpable in the short story.   Though they are travelers, imbibing alcohol and waiting for the train to their next destination, the conversation is filled with underlying themes of male dominance and female perseverance.   The man continuously belittles the girl’s feelings towards the pregnancy, and his argument includes many attempts at downplaying the importance.   The man persistently tries to convince her, even though he seems to feign sincerity in much of his words: â€Å"‘Well,’ the man said, ‘if you don’t want to you don’t have to.   I wouldn’t have you do it if you didn’t want to.   But I know it’s perfectly simple’† (Hemingway).    The girl does her best to contend with the man, believing that if she listens to him the relationship will be back to normal.   She hides her worry with levity, including her comment about the hills looking like white elephants.   It becomes apparent that more than fear over the procedure, the girl is coming to the realization that her relationship with the man is not what she thought it was: â€Å"the girl clings to a dream of family and togetherness until the last minute, and finally decides to give it all up as the requisite price of staying with the man-not knowing, as the reader does, from the many hints provided by Hemingway, that the man is likely to leave her, even if she goes through with the abortion† (Hashmi 3). Her final declaration that she is fine is the affirmation that a man cannot dictate her womanhood and her life decisions.   In the end, she becomes the one with the strength and wisdom, understanding that the relationship is forever changed.   The newfound disconnect between the man and the girl will be permanent after this episode, exemplifying the theme of alienation brought by many modern decisions. Though the man believes that the only way to preserve the comfortable relationship is to maintain the status quo, even if it means aborting their baby, the woman disagrees.   The American tries to make himself sound perfectly reasonable and rational, but as the dialogue continues, it becomes clear that he is both selfish and hypocritical (â€Å"Overview: Hills Like White Elephants†). The couple’s disagreement, about something as monumental as creating human life, is a clear sign that they have little that bonds them other than their superficiality.   The girl even comments in the beginning of the story how, â€Å"That’s all we do, isn’t it – look at things and try new drinks?’† The man responds, â€Å"I guess so† (Hemingway).   Later, when the man claims that everything will be the same after the abortion and the baby is the only thing that made them unhappy, it seems like a statement lacking all truth. The very fact that keeping or aborting a baby is a choice, is a uniquely modern issue.   The reality of having to even consider it completely destroys their carefree lifestyle as travelers in Europe, and underlines their existences as solitary beings alienated from each other.   Ironically, the man claims that he only wants her and no one else, but his statements seem insincere. The girl realizes their alienation from each other and the happiness they once knew with the â€Å"claim that Europe ‘isn’t ours anymore,’ which expresses her knowledge that such an innocent return to a secularized American-in-Europe experience of time is impossible† (Grant 3).   Europe is not theirs to share, seemingly as if enjoyment is also no longer theirs to share.   The complexity of their modern dilemma illustrates the true distance between them. Hemingway’s story is one that could only be written during modern times.   Though not many years removed from the Victorian Age, the themes of abortion, feminine independence, and modern alienation have continued to echo throughout the literature of modernity.   While short and devoid of lengthy descriptions, the dialogue and significant themes give â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† a lasting power that only continues to grow as time goes by. Works Cited: Grant, David. â€Å"Hemingway’s ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ and the tradition of the American in Europe.† Studies in Short Fiction. Summer, 1998. 25 July 2008. . Hashmi, Nilofer. â€Å"‘Hills Like White Elephants’: The Jilting Of Jig.† The Hemingway Review.   Fall 2003. 25 July 2008. . Hemingway, Ernest. â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† The Heath Anthology of American Literature.   Lauter, Paul.   3rd Ed.   Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† Short Stories for Students, Vol. 6. The Gale Group, 1999. Lankin, Paul. â€Å"Hemingway’s Hills Like White Elephants.† The Explicator. Summer 2005; v63.

Secret Service Protection For Presidential Candidates

Most presidential candidates are entitled to receive Secret Service protection from the federal law enforcement agency that also provides security to all U.S. presidents and vice presidents and their families. Serious presidential candidates begin receiving Secret Service protection during the primary campaigns and continue to get coverage through the fall election if they become the nominee. Secret service protection for presidential candidates is provided for in federal law. Here are answers to some of the most commonly asked questions about Secret Service protection for candidates. Which Presidential Candidates Get Secret Service Protection   The Secret Service protects only major presidential candidates and only those who request coverage. The secretary of Homeland Security determines which presidential candidates are considered major after consultation with an advisory committee, according to the agency. Major presidential candidates can decline Secret Service Protection. Who  Decides Which Candidates Get Secret Service Protection The Homeland Security director makes his determination on which candidates get Secret Service protection in consultation with an advisory panel that includes the speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives; the House minority whip; the Senate majority and minority leaders; and an additional member chosen by the committee itself. Criteria for Providing Secret Service Protection Major candidates are those that have considerable prominence among the public and have raised substantial money for their presidential campaigns. Specifically, primary candidates become eligible for Secret Service protection, according to the Congressional Research Service, if they: Are publicly declared candidates.Are actively campaigning nationally and are contesting at least 10 state primaries.Are pursuing the nomination of a qualified party, one whose presidential candidate received at least 10 percent of the popular vote in the prior election.Are qualified for public matching funds of at least $100,000, and have raised at least $10 million in additional contributions.Have received by April 1 of the election year an average of 5 percent in individual candidate preferences in the most recent national opinion polls by ABC, CBS, NBC, and CNN, or have received at least 10 percent of the votes cast for all candidates in two same-day or consecutive primaries or caucuses. When  Presidential Candidates Get Secret Service Protection Presidential and vice presidential nominees and their spouses are to receive Secret Service protection within 120 days of a general presidential election. In modern history, however, major candidates receive Secret Service protection well before that time, usually early in the primary campaigns in the late winter and early spring. Not every presidential candidate wants Secret Service protection, though. Ron Paul, 2012 Republican presidential hopeful popular among libertarians, declined Secret Service protection. The Texas congressman described Secret Service protection as a form of welfare. You know, you’re having the taxpayers pay to take care of somebody. I’m an ordinary citizen. I would think I should pay for my own protection. And it costs, I think, more than $50,000 a day to protect those individuals. That’s a lot of money, Paul said. Cost of Secret Service Protection The cost of providing Secret Service protection to presidential candidates exceeds $200 million. The costs have risen dramatically as the field of candidates has grown larger. The cost of providing Secret Service protection for candidates in the 2000 election was about $54 million. It rose to $74 million in 2004, $112 million in 2008, $125 million in 2012 and about $204 million in 2016.   Secret Service protection costs taxpayers about $38,000 a day per candidate, according to published reports. Secret Service Protection History Congress passed a law authorizing Secret Service protection for presidential candidates for the first time following the 1968 assassination of U.S. Sen. Robert Kennedy, who was seeking the Democratic presidential nomination.

Use of the Battered Woman Defense in Canada - 1337 Words

The battered woman defense is a defense that is used in court to defend assault/murder charges where the defendant is abused and commits a offence under duress or necessity. It is mainly used by women and also referred to as the battered woman syndrome/battered wife syndrome. It is not gender specific as men have used this defense but the majority of the accused are female. The argument consists of a woman who are physically assaulted or sexually assaulted, who in their mind thinks they deserve the abuse from the abuser. Which is why they very rarely report it to the authorities and refuse to press charges and the abuse keeps on occurring. They may become depressed and this explains why they didn’t seek help form others, leave they†¦show more content†¦.(USDJ,1996)As in the Angelina Napolitano case where killed her husband to save her life. -The plea of duress is when the abusers had to agree with the abusers demands to stop something else worse from happening. This may include illegal activity, illegal behavior, drug related activity, theft, fraud, or violence to others. To argue this plea of duress the judge has to find it was necessary to agree under that circumstances he/she was in harm or serious threat to their life or well being and this was the only way to avoid it.(USDJ,1996) Angelina Napolitano was a immigrant who came to Canada in 1909. She was married to Pietro. Their marriage was violent as Pietro abused, beat, and threatened his wife. In November 1910 Pietro attacked her with a pocketknife assaulting her causing 9 slashes to her neck, shoulder, chest and arms putting her in the hospital and leaving scars. Pietro was charged with assault but his abuse reign continued after the trial because his sentence was delayed for a period of time. Judges back then would often do this as a prohibition period. If the defendant didn’t break the law again in this period the cases would get thrown out. (Franca Iacovetta) Pietro was a labor that worked off and on. When they could not save enough money to build their own home he became more violent and started pressuring Angelina into prostitution for money. On April 16, 1911 he threatened her again and as he put it â€Å"be a bad woman† if she didShow MoreRelatedEssay Domestic Violence Against Men2504 Words   |  11 Pagesupon hearing about the topic of battered men, for many people, is that of incredulity. Battered husbands are a topic for jokes (such as the cartoon image of a woman chasing her husband with a rolling-pin). One researcher noted that wives were the perpetrators in 73% of the depictions of domestic violence in newspaper comics (Saenger 1963). Battered husbands have historically been either ignored or subjected to ridicule and abuse. In 18th-century France, a battered husband was made to wear an outlandishRead MoreEssay on Modern Feminism and Violence Against Women2367 Words   |  10 Pages469). 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The Factors That Affect Business - 1644 Words

Implementation of the result makes people enable to use it as per the situation and provide new literature for the undertaking study. Scope of this study will assist several business operators to recognize the factors that affect their business and allow them to be a part of the study and providing basic information. In current time period new entrepreneur are not much aware about the business external environment and also not know how to design business strategies by considering all business environmental dimensions. It is also clear that most of the employee those are working at floor level have common tendencies towards incentives and also considered their value and belief is on the priority in business perspective. Broad business area come under this study and each business operator can utilize the findings of the study for designing their business strategies. Each entrepreneur wants to make their business successful which is only possible when all areas of business will be asses sed in proper manner by considering different kinds of factors. 1.5 Structure of study- This study is incorporated several chapter having its own importance. Primary chapter of this study is its introduction which covering aims and objective of the study with some central questions on which study is based. It is shows in primary chapter that success of business is in the hand of effective management and business operations. Employee performance and co-operations lead business towardsShow MoreRelatedFactors That Affect a Business Essay640 Words   |  3 PagesINTERNATIONAL BUSINESS CASE STUDY Assignment 11/29/2014 CASE STUDY OF DECEMBER 2014 ABE EXAMS Suggested questions 1) Using the PESTLE framework, analyse JCB global environment - Political factor: JCB political risk is not specified in the case study. 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Changes And Urban Expansion In Greater Dhaka Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

string(84) " measure fluctuations in LULC utilizing satellite informations \( \[ Coppin etA al\." This survey evaluates old termland usage alterations and urban enlargement in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh, between 1975 and 2003 utilizing satellite images and socio-economic informations. Spatial and temporal kineticss of old termlandnext term use/cover old termchangesnext term were quantified utilizing three Landsat images, a supervised categorization algorithm and the post-classification old termchangenext term sensing technique in GIS. Accuracy of the Landsat-derived old termlandnext term use/cover maps ranged from 85 to 90 % . We will write a custom essay sample on Changes And Urban Expansion In Greater Dhaka Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The analysis revealed that significant growing of built-up countries in Greater Dhaka over the survey period resulted important lessening in the country of H2O organic structures, cultivated old termland, following term flora and wetlands. old termUrban land expansionnext term has been mostly driven by lift, population growing and economic development. Rapid old termurban expansionnext term through infilling of low-lying countries and glade of flora resulted in a broad scope of environmental impacts, including habitat quality. As dependable and current informations are missing for Bangladesh, the old termlandnext term usage maps produced in this survey will lend to both the development of sustainable old termurban landnext term usage planning determinations and besides for calculating possible hereafter old termchangesnext term in growing forms. Urbanization is one the most widespread anthropogenetic causes of the loss of cultivable old termlandnext term ( Lopez, Bocco, Mendoza, A ; Duhau, 2001 ) , habitat devastation ( Alphan, 2003 ) , and the diminution in natural flora screen. The transition of rural countries into old termurbannext term countries through development is presently happening at an unprecedented rate in recent human history and is holding a pronounced consequence on the natural operation of ecosystems ( Turner, 1994 ) . Although old termurbannext term countries presently cover merely 3 % of the Earth ‘s old termlandnext term surface, they have marked effects on environmental conditions at both local and planetary graduated tables ( [ Herold etA al. , 2003 ] and [ Liu and Lathrop, 2002 ] ) , including clime old termchangenext term ( Grimm, Grove, Pickett, A ; Redman, 2000 ) . Since ecosystems in old termurbannext term countries are strongly influenced by anthropogenetic activities, well more attending is presently being directed towards supervising old termchangesnext term in old termurban landnext term usage and old termlandnext term screen ( LULC ) ( Stow A ; Chen, 2002 ) . Such surveies are peculiarly of import because the spacial features of LULC are utile for understanding the assorted impacts of human activity on the overall ecological status of the old termurbannext term environment ( Yeh A ; Li, 1999 ) . LULC old termchangenext term due to human activities is presently continuing more rapidly in developing states than in the developed universe, and it has been projected that by the twelvemonth 2020, most of the universe ‘s mega metropoliss will be in developing states ( World Bank, 2007 ) . Increasing population in developing metropoliss has caused rapid old termchangesnext term in LULC and increased environmental debasement ( Holdgate, 1993 ) . The consequence of population is peculiarly relevant given that the planetary old termurbannext term population is proj ected to about duplicate by 2050 ( UN, 2008 ) . In order to extenuate the damaging effects associated with old termurbannext term growing on the environment and to keep optimum ecosystem operation ( Fang, Gertner, Sun, A ; Anderson, 2005 ) , spacial and temporal LULC forms, and the factors impacting these old termchangesnext term ( Serra, Pons, A ; Sauri , 2008 ) , are well of import in developing rational economic, societal and environmental policies ( Long, Tang, Li, A ; Heilig, 2007 ) . Bangladesh has experienced rapid old termurbannext term population growing in recent decennaries ; the population numbered 14.1 million in 1981, 22.5 million in 1991, 31.1 million in 2001 ( BBS, 2001 ) and 35 million in 2005 ( CUS, NIPORT, A ; MEASURE, 2006 ) . Rapid urbanisation has led to the transmutation of rural countries into developed countries, and it has been estimated that more than 809A km2 of agricultural old termlandnext term is converted to metropoliss, roads and substructure yearly ( BBS, 1996 ) . The lessening in agricultural activities, the largest sector of the Bangladeshi economic system, and the attendant loss of cultivated old termlandnext term is likely to lend to landlessness, nutrient deficits and endanger the economic system ( Ahmad, 2005 ) . Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is expected to be the 3rd largest metropolis in the universe by 2020 ( World Bank, 2007 ) and the rapid old termurbannext term growing experienced by the metropolis in recent decennaries is one of the highest in the universe ( [ Islam, 1999 ] and [ Islam, 2005 ] ) . old termUrban expansionnext term of Dhaka was slow in the 1950s, but strong growing followed the independency of Bangladesh in 1971 ( Chowdhury A ; Faruqui, 1989 ) . The considerable growing observed in the population of Dhaka is thought to hold occurred in response to large-scale rural-previous termurbannext term migration, which has contributed, significantly to the increased rate of urbanisation ( Islam, 1996 ) . To day of the month, the environmental and socio-economic sustainability of Dhaka, which is indispensable for development planning, has received comparatively small attending. This has resulted in widespread environmental jobs across the metropolis, mostly stemming from unpla nned urbanisation, extensive old termurbannext term poorness, perennial episodes of implosion therapy, significant growing of slums, development of resources, and the misdirection of limited old termlandnext term resources ( Hasan A ; Mulamoottil, 1994 ) . Geographic Information Systems ( GIS ) and distant detection ( RS ) are powerful and cost-efficient tools for measuring the spacial and temporal kineticss of LULC ( [ Hathout, 2002 ] , [ Herold etA al. , 2003 ] , [ Lambin etA al. , 2003 ] and [ Serra etA al. , 2008 ] ) . Distant feeling informations provide valuable multi-temporal informations on the procedures and forms of LULC old termchange, following term and GIS is utile for function and analysing these forms ( Zhang etA al. , 2002 ) . In add-on, retrospective and consistent synoptic coverage from orbiters is peculiarly utile in countries where old termchangesnext term have been rapid ( Blodget, Taylor, A ; Roark, 1991 ) . Furthermore, since digital archives of remotely sensed informations provide the chance to analyze historical LULC old termchanges, following term the geographic form of such old termchangesnext term in relation to other environmental and human factors can be evaluated. Numerous old termchangenext term sensing methods have been developed to measure fluctuations in LULC utilizing satellite informations ( [ Coppin etA al. You read "Changes And Urban Expansion In Greater Dhaka Environmental Sciences Essay" in category "Essay examples" , 2004 ] , [ Lu etA al. , 2004 ] and [ Singh, 1989 ] ) . Of these techniques, the pre- and post-classification comparings have been extensively used ( [ Coppin etA al. , 2004 ] and [ Singh, 1989 ] ) . In the pre-classification attack, processs such as image differencing ( Toll, Royal, A ; Davis, 1980 ) , band rationing ( Nelson, 1983 ) , old termchangenext term vector analysis ( Johnson A ; Kasischke, 1998 ) , direct multi-date categorization ( Li A ; Yeh, 1998 ) , flora index differencing ( Townshend A ; Justice, 1995 ) and principle constituent analysis ( Fung A ; LeDrew, 1987 ; Hartter, Lucas, Gaughan, A ; Aranda, 2008 ) have been developed ( [ Hardin etA al. , 2007 ] , [ Jensen, 1996 ] and [ Singh, 1989 ] ) . Th e basic premiss of these processs is that old termchangesnext term in LULC consequence in differences in the pel coefficient of reflection values between the day of the months of involvement. However, while these techniques are effectual for turn uping old termchange, following term they can non place the nature of old termchangenext term ( Ridd A ; Liu, 1998 ) . Conversely, post-classification comparings examine old termchangesnext term over clip between independently classified old termlandnext term screen informations. Despite the troubles associated with post-classification comparings ( [ Coppin etA al. , 2004 ] and [ Singh, 1989 ] ) , this technique is the most widely used for placing LULC old termchangesnext term ( [ Jensen, 1996 ] and [ Lu etA al. , 2004 ] ) , peculiarly in old termurbannext term environments ( Hardin etA al. , 2007 ) . However, one of the disadvantages associated with this attack is that the truth of the end point LULC old termchangenext term maps depends o n the truth of the single categorization, intending that such techniques are capable to error extension ( Yuan, Sawaya, Loeffelholz, A ; Bauer, 2005 ) . However, such post-classification techniques are peculiarly utile for bring forthing ‘from-to ‘ maps ( Jensen, 1996 ) , which can be used to clear up the magnitude, location and nature of the old termchangesnext term shown ( Howarth A ; Wickware, 1981 ) . In add-on, the technique can be employed utilizing informations acquired from detectors with different spatial, temporal and spectral declarations ( [ Alphan, 2003 ] and [ Coppin etA al. , 2004 ] ) . RS is really effectual for exemplifying the interactions between people and the old termurbannext term environments in which they live ( Gatrell A ; Jensen, 2008 ) . Space-borne orbiter informations are peculiarly utile for developing states due to the cost and clip associated with traditional study methods ( Dong, Forster, A ; Ticehurst, 1997 ) , and these techniques have become feasible options to conventional study and ground-based old termurbannext term mapping methods ( Jensen, Hodgson, Tullis, A ; Raber, 2004 ) . Several surveies have demonstrated the pertinence of RS to developing sourcing information and for back uping decision-making activities in a broad scope of old termurbannext term applications ( [ Gatrell and Jensen, 2008 ] , [ Jensen and Cowen, 1999 ] and [ Zeilhofer and Topanotti, 2008 ] ) . In the country of old termurbannext term planning, of import RS research has been conducted to day of the month, peculiarly in old termurban changenext term analysis and the m old of growing ( [ Bahr, 2004 ] , [ Hardin etA al. , 2007 ] , [ Hathout, 2002 ] , [ Herold etA al. , 2003 ] , [ Jat etA al. , 2008 ] , [ Jensen and Im, 2007 ] , [ Liu and Lathrop, 2002 ] , [ Maktav and Erbek, 2005 ] , [ Ridd and Liu, 1998 ] , [ Yang, 2002 ] and [ Yuan, 2008 ] ) , LULC rating ( [ Alphan, 2003 ] , [ Lopez etA al. , 2001 ] , [ Xiao etA al. , 2006 ] , [ Yang and Lo, 2002 ] and [ Yuan etA al. , 2005 ] ) , and old termurbannext term heat-island research ( [ Kato and Yamaguchi, 2005 ] and [ Weng, 2001 ] ) . In peculiar, RS-based multi-temporal old termlandnext term use old termchangenext term informations provide information that can be used for measuring the structural fluctuation of LULC forms ( Liu, Gao, A ; Yang, 2003 ) , which can be applied to avoiding irreversible and cumulative effects of old termurbannext term growing ( Yuan, 2008 ) and are of import to optimise the allotment of old termurbannext term services ( Barnsley A ; Barr, 1996 ) . In add-on, accurate an d comprehensive old termlandnext term use old termchangenext term statistics are utile for inventing sustainable old termurbannext term and environmental planning schemes ( [ Alphan, 2003 ] and [ Jensen and Im, 2007 ] ) . It is hence really of import to gauge the rate, form and type of LULC old termchangesnext term in order to foretell future old termchangesnext term in old termurbannext term development. Small is known about the spacial and temporal dimensions of the LULC old termchangesnext term that have shaped the old termurban expansionnext term of Greater Dhaka. Although most developed states have both recent and extended LULC information, the comparative deficiency of geospatial informations or entree thereto, is prevailing in developing states, peculiarly in Bangladesh. For case, aerial exposure are classified for the populace. The metropolis does non hold any official statistics on old termlandnext term usage forms, and the Master Plans do non incorporate either a map or quantitative information on the bing forms of old termlandnext term usage in the metropolis ( [ Islam, 1996 ] and [ Islam, 2005 ] ) . The old termlandnext term usage forms of Greater Dhaka were officially categorized in 1991 utilizing land observation informations ( Flood Action Plan ( FAP ) 8A, 1991 and [ Islam, 2005 ] ) . Due to the easiness of entree and recent nature of nose count records, the local autho ritiess of Dhaka often use nose count informations to construe old termlandnext term use old termchanges.next term As a consequence, the kineticss of development are non clear and frequently deceptive ( Talukder, 2008 ) . Numerous factors, including fiscal restraints, restricted entree to informations, bureaucratism and deficiency of geospatial expertness in the planning bureaus account for the absence of historical and current old termlandnext term usage informations. Furthermore, every bit many as 18 ministries are involved in the development and planning of Dhaka, and there is a general deficiency of coordination between these organic structures ( Mohit, 1991 ) . This empirical survey will try to place the spatio-temporal form of LULC old termchangesnext term for Greater Dhaka utilizing geospatial informations so that both the scientific community and determination shapers can measure the assorted kineticss impacting LULC old termchangesnext term in this old termurbannext term en vironment. The aims of this survey were therefore to research the features of LULC old termchangesnext term and qualify the underlying drive forces in the Greater Dhaka country by doing usage of remotely sensed informations and socio-economic information. Specifically, the aims are: ( a ) to clarify and measure the LULC old termchangesnext term between 1975 and 2003 ; ( B ) to research the spacial and temporal features of old termurban expansionnext term in this period ; and ( degree Celsius ) to analyse the drive forces of old termlandnext term use old termchange and urban expansion.next term Study country As shown in Fig.A 1, the survey country of Greater Dhaka is located in the centre of Bangladesh between 23A °68aˆ?N ( BTM 533233.91A m ) , 90A °33aˆ? E ( BTM 619052.83A m ) and 23A °90aˆ?N ( BTM 550,952.57A m ) , 90A °50aˆ? E ( BTM 642511.56A m ) , severally. Topographically, the country is level with a surface lift runing from 1 to 14A m ( Fig.A 1 ) , with most old termurbannext term countries located at lifts runing from 6 to 8A m ( FAP 8A, 1991 ) . The metropolis is situated chiefly on an alluvial patio, popularly known as the Modhupur patio dating from the Pleistocene period. The survey country is surrounded by four major river systems: the Buriganga, Turag, Tongi and the Balu, which flow to the South, west, north and east, severally. These rivers are chiefly fed by local rainfall and besides receive overflow from the well larger Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. The metropolis has a humid sub-tropical monsoon clime and receives about 2000A millimeter s of rainfall yearly, more than 80 % of which falls during the monsoon season from June to September. Life-size image ( 137K ) – Opens new window Life-size image ( 137K ) Fig.A 1.A Location of survey country. River webs, embankment and administrative units are draped over a digital lift theoretical account. Brightest countries represent higher lift ; bright grey represents average lift while dark pels show the lowest lift. Position Within Article The happening of heavy monsoon rainfall combined with floodwater overflow from the rivers environing the metropolis mean that Dhaka is really prone to monsoon implosion therapy. The metropolis has experienced a figure of lay waste toing inundations in recent times, with the inundations in 1988, 1998 and 2004 being the most terrible ( Alam A ; Rabbani, 2007 ) . Quantitative appraisals of the countries inundated by these flood events revealed that in 1988, 47.1 % of greater Dhaka were flooded, while in 1998 and 2004, about 53 % and 43 % countries were inundated ( [ Dewan etA al. , 2007 ] , [ Dewan and Yamaguchi, 2008 ] and [ Dewan etA al. , 2006 ] ) . The inundations caused harm to lodging and substructure amounting to US $ 2.2A m in 1988, 4.4A m in 1998 and 5.6A m in 2004 ( Ahmed, Gotoh, A ; Hossain, 2006 ) . The badness of inundation harm was considerable, even in 2004, which was considered more moderate of the three inundations, and which was believed to be the consequence of hapl ess old termurbannext term planning and renewal and development of natural countries, such as wetlands and low-lying countries, that would otherwise hold attenuated the implosion therapy. A survey utilizing hydrological record and RS-based LULC information has shown that inundation continuance and extent has increased well as a consequence of the extended old termurbannext term development on Lowlandss and flood plains of natural river channels ( Dewan A ; Yamaguchi, 2008 ) . It has been suggested that the exposure of Dhaka to deluge harm will increase due to continued unplanned old termurban expansionnext term ( Faisal, Kabir, A ; Nishat, 1999 ) and the consequence of clime old termchangenext term ( Alam A ; Rabbani, 2007 ) , and that these in bend will increase the agony to the dwellers of Dhaka and do extended harm to belongings in the part. Data and methodological analysis Data acquisition and readying Landsat informations ( MSS, TM and ETM+ ) were acquired and used to measure LULC old termchanges and urban expansionnext term in Dhaka. Geometric rectification was performed on all the images utilizing a Landsat TM image of the same country from 1997 as mention. At least 45 land control points ( GCPs ) were used to register the images to the Bangladesh Transverse Mercator ( BTM ) system. GCPs were dispersed throughout the scene, giving a RMS mistake of less than 0.5 pels. A first order multinomial tantrum was applied and images were resampled to 30A m end product pels utilizing the nearest neighbour method. All brooding sets were used in image categorization and the thermic set was excluded. In add-on, geospatial informations including municipal boundaries, route webs, geomorphic units and lift units were used to bring forth GIS beds from beginnings such as Survey of Bangladesh ( SOB ) topographical maps ( sheet no. 79 I 5 A ; 6 ) , municipal boundary map and geomorphic map ( Asaduz zaman, Nasreen, A ; Olsen, 1999 ) . Multi-year socio-economic informations were obtained from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics ( BBS ) and published literature ( [ Islam, 1996 ] , [ Islam, 2005 ] and [ Siddiqui etA al. , 2000 ] ) . Reference informations, which varied given the retrospective nature of the survey ( Table 1 ) , were used for both developing country choice and for the rating of map truth. In add-on to utilizing high-resolution imagination, intensive fieldwork was conducted in the survey country from 6 February to 22 March 2003 to roll up land truth information for the analysis of the 2003 image. A hardcopy false colour composite ETM+ ( RGB 432 ) image picturing different LULC types was used in the field to place bing old termlandnext term screen characteristics, with particular attending given to spectrally similar characteristics. Based on this fieldwork, a land truth map was prepared for turn uping preparation pels on the image and 200 mention informations points were collected utilizing a planetary placement system ( GPS ) . This GPS information was so overlaid with the image in GIS to choose developing countries and for accuracy appraisal ; 100 of the GPS points were used for trying and the ot her 100 were used for measuring the truth of the categorization. Table 1. Different informations types used in this survey. Sl. No. Type of informations used Scale/resolution Year 1 Survey of Bangladesh topo-sheets 1: 50,000 1973, 1991 2 CUS old termlandnext term usage map 1: 10,000 1975 3 FAP 8A old termlandnext term usage map 1: 10,000 1991 4 Landsat MSS image 79A m 1975 5 SPOT Pan image 10A m 1989/90 6 Landsat TM image 28.5A m 1992 7 Landsat ETM+ image 28.5A m 2003 8 IKONOS Pan image 1A m 2003 9 Municipal boundary informations 1: 50,000 2001 10 Geomorphic map 1: 25,000 1999 11 Drain map 1: 25,000 2000 12 City Guide Maps 1: 20,000 1991, 2002 13 Socio-economic informations Annually and decadala 1973-2005 Full-size tabular array aA Census records. Position Within Article Image categorization A alteration of the Anderson Scheme Level I method was used to measure LULC old termchangesnext term in this survey ( Anderson, Hardy, Roach, A ; Witmer, 1976 ) . Specifically, extra factors such as the major old termlandnext term usage classs within the survey country and differences in the spacial declaration of the images, which varied from 30 to 79A m, were considered in planing the categorization strategy. Six separate LULC types were identified: H2O organic structures, wetlands/lowlands, built-up countries, cultivated old termland, following term flora and bare soil/landfill ( Table 2 ) . Table 2. old termLandnext term use/cover categorization strategy. old termLandnext term use/Cover Types Description Built-up Residential, commercial and services, industrial, transit, roads, assorted old termurban, following term and other old termurbannext term Bare soil/landfill sites Exposed dirts, landfill sites, and countries of active digging Cultivated old termlandnext term Agricultural country, harvest Fieldss, fallow old termlandsnext term and vegetable old termlandsnext term Vegetation Deciduous forest, assorted forest old termlands, following term thenars, conifer, chaparral and others Water organic structures River, lasting unfastened H2O, lakes, pools and reservoirs Wetland/lowlands Permanent and seasonal wetlands, low-lying countries, marshy old termland, following term rivulets and gully, swamps Full-size tabular array Position Within Article All orbiter informations were studied utilizing spectral and spacial profiles to determine the digital Numberss ( DNs ) of different LULC classs prior to categorization. Training samples were selected from the mention informations and accessory information ( Table 1 ) . Sixty to seventy preparation sites, runing in size from 286 to 7800 pels, were used to develop the images. Training samples included 5-10 subclasses for each category except for bare soil/landfill. The preparation samples were so refined, renamed, merged, and deleted after rating of the category histogram and statistical parametric quantities. A supervised upper limit likeliness categorization ( MLC ) algorithm, antecedently demonstrated to obtain the best consequences from remotely sensed informations if each category has a Gaussian distribution ( Bolstad A ; Lillesand, 1991 ) , was so applied to each image. However, several of the categories were falsely classified in the supervised categorization of LULC, with certain old termurbannext term colonies being misclassified as landfill sites due to their holding similar spectral features. Similarly, the wetland category was merged with the lowland category as it was non possible to divide them due to similar spectral belongingss, and the wetland/lowland class and cultivated old termlandnext term were besides falsely classified. Post-classification polish was hence used to better the truth of the categorization as it is a simple and effectual method ( Harris A ; Ventura, 1995 ) . In add-on, since the old termurbannext term surface is heterogenous and composed of a complex combination of characteristics ( e.g. edifices, roads, grass, trees, dirt, H2O ) ( Jensen, 2007 ) , assorted pels are a common job when utilizing medium-spatial declaration informations such as Landsat ( Lu A ; Weng, 2005 ) . The job of assorted pels was addressed in several ways. For illustration, thematic information ( e.g. H2O organic structures, flora, and bare dirt ) was foremost extracted from the Landsat informations utilizing the V-S-W index ( Yamagata, Sugita, A ; Yasuoka, 1997 ) , before a rule-based technique utilizing thematic information and GIS informations ( e.g. DEM, municipal maps and H2O organic structures, etc. ) was employed in ERDAS spacial modeller to rectify antecedently misclassified old termlandnext term screen c lasss. Although this rule-based technique greatly improved the MLC categorization, some misclassification between wetland and cultivated old termlandsnext term was still observed, chiefly because of the geographical adjacency of these classs. GIS tools, such as Area of Interest ( AOI ) were so applied to the informations utilizing ocular analysis, mention informations, every bit good as local cognition, to divide and recode these screens so that they more closely reflected their true categories. By using these techniques, the consequence obtained utilizing the supervised algorithm could be well improved. Finally, to cut down the salt-and-pepper consequence, a 3A A-A 3 bulk filter was applied to the classified old termlandnext term screens ( Lillesand A ; Kiefer, 1999 ) . Accuracy appraisal By and large, categorization truth refers to the extent of correspondence between the remotely sensed informations and mention information ( Congalton, 1991 ) . In order to measure the truth of old termlandnext term screen maps extracted from Landsat informations, a sum of 125 graded random pels were generated for the 1975 and 1992 informations and 100 pels for the 2003 old termlandnext term screen map. Accuracy appraisal of the LULC maps was so performed utilizing field informations and the geographical characteristics on old termlandnext term usage maps, high-resolution images, and SOB topographic maps, and the consequences were recorded in a confusion matrix. A non-parametric Kappa trial was besides used to mensurate the categorization truth as it accounts for all the elements in the confusion matrix instead than merely the diagonal elements ( Rosenfield A ; Fitzpatirck-Lins, 1986 ) . The entire truth of the Landsat-derived LULC information was 85.6, 89.6 and 90 % with matching Kappa statistics of 82.7, 87.5 and 87.9 % for MSS, TM and ETM+ , severally, confirming the standard truth of 85-90 % for LULC mapping surveies as recommended by Anderson etA Al. ( 1976 ) . The application of rule-based post-classification polish was found to be effectual and improved truth by 10-12 % . The MSS image had the lowest overall truth, which may be due to its harsh spacial declaration ( Haack, 1987 ) . Yang and Lo ( 2002 ) besides noted that the jobs associated with right sorting assorted pels additions with diminishing image declaration, ensuing in spectral confusion. In this survey, spectral confusion was higher in the MSS image than in the TM/ETM+ images. old termChangenext term sensing This survey employed the post-classification old termchangenext term sensing technique, which is efficient in observing the nature, rate and location of old termchanges, following term and has been successfully used by a figure of research workers in the old termurbannext term environment ( Hardin etA al. , 2007 ) . An overlay process utilizing the GIS was adopted in order to obtain the spacial old termchangesnext term in LULC during three intervals: 1975-1992, 1992-2003 and 1975-2003. Application of this technique resulted in a bipartisan cross-matrix, depicting the chief types of old termchangenext term in the survey country. Cross tabular matter analysis on a pixel-by-pixel footing facilitated the finding of theA measure of transitions from a peculiar old termlandnext term screen category to other old termlandnext term usage classs and their corresponding country over the period evaluated. A new thematic bed incorporating different combinations of â€Å" from-to † old termc hangenext term categories was besides produced for each of the three six-class maps. LULC old termchangesnext term and kineticss of old termurban expansionnext term Spatial forms of LULC old termchangesnext term in the Greater Dhaka country for 1975, 1992 and 2003 are shown in Fig.A 2. In 1975, lowlands, cultivated countries and H2O organic structures were the dominant old termlandnext term usage types, and the way of old termurban expansionnext term ( herein referred to as the built-up class ) was northerly. In 1992, the built-up class replaced most of the H2O organic structures and depressions within the metropolis every bit good as the cultivated old termlandnext term along the peripheral zone. Surveies of historical maps and the available literature suggest that the depressions and H2O organic structures within the metropolis disappeared comparatively rapidly after independency as countries were developed for residential, commercial, academic and concern intents ( Siddiqui etA al. , 2000 ) . Between 1975 and 1992, when route transit from Dhaka to the backwoods was improved by the building of Bridgess over the rivers ( Islam, 1996 ) , old ter murban expansionnext term extended further to the North, north-west and to the West. Consequently, the country of cultivated old termlandnext term and H2O organic structures declined markedly during the period 1975-1992 ( Louis Berger A ; BCL, 2005 ) . In 2003, the forms of LULC old termchangenext term revealed that Dhaka started to spread out in all waies, chiefly at the disbursal of vegetated and wetland/lowland countries. The rate of old termurbannext term invasion ( Fig.A 2 ) on other old termlandnext term utilizations increased significantly following the readying of a new Master Plan in 1995 and the development of substructure ( Siddiqui etA al. , 2000 ) . The building of a span over the Buriganga River accelerated old termurban expansionnext term in the southern and northwesterly waies. The spacial distribution of the exposed soil/landfill class is besides seeable in the maps produced ( Fig.A 2 ) , clearly exemplifying the transmutation of lowland countries to landfills on t he outskirts of Dhaka. Life-size image ( 292K ) – Opens new window Life-size image ( 292K ) Fig.A 2.A Classified old termlandnext term use/cover maps of Greater Dhaka in 1975, 1992 and 2003. Position Within Article Three sectors, viz. the populace, private, and individual-household sectors, are responsible for all of the old termlandnext term developments in Dhaka. Most of the old development undertakings were undertaken on an ad hoc footing by the populace sector, chiefly in countries that were antecedently used for agribusiness and that were free from flood ; illustrations of such developments include Gulshan Model Town, Banani, Uttara Model Town and Dhanmondi ( Chowdhury, 2003 ) . In recent old ages, belongings development has proliferated in Dhaka, and belongings developers have developed both wetlands and agricultural countries without any consideration of the attendant environmental costs. In add-on, single families have started to develop the peripheral countries ( Islam, 1996 ) . In the fieldwork conducted in this survey, old termlandnext term guess was observed to hold had a pronounced influence on the development of suburban countries. In response to increasing old termlandnext term m onetary values and turning demand for lodging, Lowlandss and agricultural countries in the periphery zone are quickly going built-up by the person and belongings developers. While suburban development is a really complex procedure that is known to be influenced by a assortment of factors, including guess and old termlandnext term monetary values, these factors may non adequately explicate the procedure of suburban development in the survey country. A more elaborate survey is hence required in order to understand the assorted factors act uponing suburban development in the greater Dhaka country. Furthermore, hapless coordination among executive bureaus is besides responsible for the decrease observed in natural resources in the survey country. For illustration, in the Dhaka-Narayangonj-Demra ( DND ) undertaking, despite about 6000A hour angles being set aside for agricultural production in the 1960s, the country has been used by local and migratory people for residential intents sinc e 1990s without any blessing from the governments concerned. Cases such as this illustrate the deficiency of effectual coordination among the organisations involved in the planning and development of Dhaka. Analysis of the LULC old termchangesnext term in Dhaka over clip revealed a considerable addition in the built-up countries over the survey period ; built-up countries increased by 6132A hour angle between 1975 and 1992, which is an norm of more than 360A haA yra?’1. Similarly, built-up countries increased in size by 4422A hour angle from 1992 to 2003, more than 400A haA yra?’1, and the net addition of old termurbannext term countries over the survey period was 10554A hour angle ( Table 3 ) . When compared with other metropoliss in the part, such as Ajmer City in India, the rate of the old termurban expansionnext term in Ajmer City was 29.2A haA yra?’1 over the period 1977-1989 and 32.4A haA yra?’1 from 1989 to 2002 ( Jat, Garg, A ; Khare, 2008 ) . Although urbanisation is by and large related to demographic old termchangenext term and economic growing ( Li, Sato, A ; Zhu, 2003 ) , the nature of old termurban expansionnext term in the survey country may besides be associated with other factors such as topography, old termlandnext term usage, and transit. Close scrutiny of the old termchangenext term sensing statistics revealed that about 6132A hour angle of the urbanised country in Dhaka were antecedently either agricultural countries or H2O organic structures between 1975 and 1992. Conversely, 4422A hour angle of the freshly urbanized countries were antecedently flora or wetlands during the same period. By and large, two factors were observed to hold promoted old termurbannext term growing: ( 1 ) increased economic activity associated with the constitution of economic zones ( e.g. export treating zone ) and ( 2 ) redefinition of the metropolitan country. Between 1975 and 1992, reclassification of old termurbannext term countries every bit good as infrastructural development played a important function in the old termexpansion of urbannext term countries. For case, the nor’-west and southerly old termexpansionnext term of th e metropolis occurred in response to building of a inundation embankment in 1992 ( Fig.A 1 ) and a span on the Buriganga River in 2001. The spacial features of built-up countries have besides been shaped by the building of a figure of transit paths in the same period, as understood from historical map analysis and field visit. The old termexpansionnext term to the E and nor’-east led to the development of unplanned suburbs in the Lowlandss and agricultural countries that were antecedently located in those countries. Table 3. Consequences of old termlandnext term use/previous termlandnext term screen categorization for 1975, 1992 and 2003 images demoing country of each class, category per centum and country changed. old termLandnext term use/cover types 1975 1992 1975-1992 country changed ( hour angle ) 2003 1992-2003 Area changed ( hour angle ) Area ( hour angle ) % Area ( hour angle ) % Area ( hour angle ) % Water organic structures 2976.1 7.2 2492.8 6.0 a?’483.3 2050.9 4.9 a?’441.9 Wetland/lowlands 13155.1 31.7 11646.8 28.0 a?’1508.3 9124.0 22.0 a?’2522.8 Cultivated old termlandnext term 12040.8 29.0 7934.3 19.1 a?’4106.5 8466.6 20.4 532.3 Vegetation 6585.2 15.8 5686.7 13.7 a?’898.6 3992.2 9.6 a?’1694.4 Built-up 5550.5 13.4 11682.4 28.1 6131.9 16104.6 38.7 4422.2 Bare soil/landfill 1256.2 3.0 2121.0 5.1 864.8 1825.7 4.4 a?’295.4 Entire 41564 100 41564 100 41564 100 Full-size tabular array Position Within Article The GIS analysis besides revealed that the country occupied by H2O organic structures decreased by 16.2 % , wetlands by 11.5 % , cultivated old termlandnext term by 34.1 % , and flora by 13.6 % between 1975 and 1992. Another important old termchangenext term was the diminution in wetlands and flora from 1992 to 2003. In 1992, wetlands and flora occupied 28 % and 13.7 % of the entire survey country, but by 2003, these countries had declined to 21.7 % and 5.5 % , severally. Conversely, built-up countries increased in size by 37.9 % in the period from 1992 to 2003. A little addition in cultivated old termlandnext term ( 6.7 % ) was besides observed in this period. The diminution of flora and wetlands was clearly due to intensification of old termurbannext term development in the greater Dhaka country, peculiarly through the procedure of suburban development. As shown in Table 4, there has been a pronounced old termchangenext term in LULC over the 28-year survey period. Table 4. Major old termlandnext term use/cover transitions from 1975 to 2003. ‘From category ‘ ‘To category ‘ 1975-1992 Area ( hour angle ) 1992-2003 Area ( hour angle ) Water organic structures Built-up 655.7 269.5 Bare soil/landfill 71.4 82.7 Wetland/lowland Built-up 660.0 1414.7 Cultivated old termlandnext term 2007.8 2743.6 Bare soil/landfill 416.8 492.5 Cultivated old termlandnext term Built-up 3944.3 2309.0 Bare soil/landfill 794.7 391.8 Vegetation Built-up 1725.1 1069.1 Cultivated old termlandnext term 932.4 1387.5 Bare soil/landfill 333.7 287.3 Bare soil/landfill Built-up 453.8 1047.4 Full-size tabular array Position Within Article The post-classification comparing of old termchangenext term sensing was carried out utilizing GIS, bring forthing old termchangenext term maps for understanding the spacial form of old termchangenext term between old ages ( Fig.A 3 ) . Table 4 shows a sum-up of the major LULC transitions, viz. ‘from-to ‘ information, which occurred during the survey period. As indicated, the bulk of old termurban landnext term was acquired by change overing countries that were antecedently agricultural old termland, following term flora, H2O organic structures or low-lying countries, proposing the being of increased force per unit area on natural resources in Greater Dhaka to run into the increasing demand for old termurban land.next term Life-size image ( 247K ) – Opens new window Life-size image ( 247K ) Fig.A 3.A Major old termlandnext term use/conversions in Greater Dhaka ( a ) 1975-1992 ( B ) 1992-2003. Position Within Article The survey revealed that the old termurban expansionnext term in Dhaka has been comparatively rapid and has resulted in widespread environmental debasement. The procedure of old termurban expansionnext term in Dhaka was observed to change markedly over the old ages examined in this survey ; specifically, the metropolis expanded by 6131.9A hour angle during the 17-year period from 1975 to 1992 and 4422.2A hour angle in the 11-year period from 1992 to 2003. Landsat images revealed that old termurban expansionnext term in two periods examined in this survey did non happen equally in all waies ; new developments were observed along the fringe of old termurbannext term countries every bit good as in the countries that had already been urbanized. The rapid gait of urbanisation in Dhaka means that it has non been possible for the municipal authorities to supply basic old termurbannext term comfortss to the population, which has led to a broad scope of environmental jobs. For illustration, old termurbannext term development facilitated by old termlandnext term filling has been shown to hold a negative impact on natural home ground and biodiversity ( [ Alphan, 2003 ] and [ Dewidar, 2002 ] ) . Vulnerability to temblor related jeopardies has besides increased since a major part of Dhaka ‘s recent development has taken topographic point in landfill sites ( Kamal A ; Midorikawa, 2004 ) . In southern Dhaka, landfills have contributed to dirt y pollution, ensuing in reduced flora ( Khatun A ; Hoque, 1994 ) . Uncoordinated urbanisation and the creative activity of landfill sites have intensified the extent of flood in the metropolis during the moisture season ( Alam A ; Rabbani, 2007 ) , which is peculiarly critical in the western parts of Dhaka ( Maathuis, Mannaerts, A ; Khan, 1999 ) . Flood hazard potency has been elevated due to continued infilling of H2O organic structures, wetlands and low-lying countries ( Dewan A ; Yamaguchi, 2008 ) . In add-on, the speed uping growing of slums is impacting the metropolis ‘s physical and human environment. Harmonizing to CUS etA Al. ( 2006 ) , the slum population of Dhaka ( about 37 % of the metropolis ‘s population ) has doubled in a decennary, to make 3.4 million in 2006 from 1.5 million in 1996. The environment of these informal colonies is highly unhygienic as they are in close propinquity to solid waste mopess, unfastened drains and cloacas, embankments, and al ong railroad lines ( Islam, 1999 ) . Consequently, the people populating in slums are highly vulnerable to inundations ( Rashid, 2000 ) and they besides suffer from an acute deficit of drinkable H2O ( Akbar, Minnery, Horen, A ; Smith, 2007 ) . Driving forces analysis LULC old termchanges and urban expansionnext term of Greater Dhaka is governed by a combination of geographical, environmental and socio-economic factors. Although population growing is the primary cause for rapid urbanisation, the part of other causes such as economic development and physical factors besides needs to be assessed. To measure the mechanisms underlying the old termchangesnext term in LULC and subsequent old termurban enlargement, following term we performed a arrested development analysis of built-up countries utilizing selected physical and socio-economic variables ( lift, incline, population and GDP ) , and presented the consequences in Table 5. old termUrbannext term country informations were extracted from one-year BBS statistics since RS informations merely cover three old ages. To analyze the effects of incline and lift on old termurban enlargement, following term average values of incline, and lift of both developed and developing countries in the metropolis wer e calculated from a digital lift theoretical account. Socio-economic informations, such as population and GDP values were obtained from the decadal and annually one-year tabular arraies of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics ( Table 1 ) . Table 5. Regression analysis of factors underlying old termurban expansion.next term Driving factors Coefficients Robust criterion mistake T pA gt ; A |t| Population 1.776 0.633 2.808 0.019 GDP 0.0001 0.000 4.730 0.001 Elevation 0.549 0.295 1.861 0.092 Slope 0.028 0.057 0.494 0.404 Changeless a?’5.058 5.811 a?’0.870 0.404 Full-size tabular array R2A =A 0.947 ; ( ProbA gt ; A FA =A 0.000 ) ; Dependent variable: Built-up country. Position Within Article Census informations indicate that the old termurbannext term population of Dhaka was merely 0.34 million in 1951, increasing to 2.6 million in 1974 with an one-year growing rate of 9.32 % during 1961-1974 ( Islam, 1999 ) . By 1981, the population had reached 3.44 million. The population reached 6.92 million in 1991 and 10.7 million by 2001 ( BBS, 2001 ) . Presently, the population of Dhaka is more than 12 million with an one-year mean growing of 5 % , compared to the national growing of 2.1 % ( Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics ( BBS ) , 2005 and [ The World Bank, 2007 ] ) . The rapid growing of the old termurbannext term population has chiefly resulted from rural-previous termurbannext term migration and estimates show that more than 60 % of people in Dhaka have migrated from rural countries ( Islam, 1991 ) . Intelligibly, this addition in the population had the consequence of increasing force per unit area on the limited resource-base, and significantly contributed to the old termexp ansion of urbannext term countries by glade of natural flora and infilling of low-lying countries. Table 5 clearly shows that old termurban expansionnext term is positively related to population growing. Dhaka ‘s economic development is another factor that has contributed to rapid urbanisation. For illustration, Dhaka ‘s gross domestic merchandise ( GDP ) was about 11,312 million Taka1 in 1976, 129,665 million Taka in 1992 and 162,490 million Taka in 1995. Presently, the GDP of Dhaka is 354,240 million Taka and the metropolis ‘s portion of the national economic system is 19 % ( BBS, 2005 ) . The economic development associated with the roar in ready-made garments since the 1980s has had a important impact on old termexpansionnext term of the metropolis country. This economic activity has besides resulted in a big inflow of rural-previous termurbannext term migrators in the same period ( Islam, 1996 ) . In add-on, Dhaka supports more than 40 % of Bangladesh ‘s industry, farther suggesting that the economic development and industrialisation has led to a higher rate of old termurban expansion.next term The arrested development analysis revealed that GDP exercised positive effects on old termurban land expansionnext term ( Table 5 ) . As in other old termurbannext term centres, the way of old termurban expansionnext term in Dhaka has been extremely influenced by its physical scene, peculiarly its topography. The four major rivers, swamps and depressions within and around the metropolis have ever played a polar function in the development of built-up countries in the metropolis. Urbanization ab initio occurred in the elevated countries that were non affected by inundation. Once all the elevated places had been developed, the lifting demand of old termurban landnext term has been met by the transmutation of low-lying countries, vegetated countries and wetlands. The development of wetlands, for case, has led to a significant loss of natural resources and an addition in habitat debasement. The growing of belongings developers has accelerated invasion of old termurbannext term countries on wetlands and threatens biodiversity. Two geophysical indexs were used in the arrested development analysis ( Table 5 ) and found th at lift has major influence on old termurban expansionnext term while incline has non passed the important trial. Decisions This survey has assessed LULC old termchangesnext term and the kineticss of old termurban expansionnext term in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh utilizing RS informations in concurrence with socio-economic variables. old termUrban expansionnext term was quantified for the last 28 old ages utilizing the post-classification comparing technique. Greater Dhaka was found to hold experienced rapid old termchangesnext term in LULC, peculiarly in built-up/previous termurbannext term countries. Analysis revealed that old termurbannext term countries increased by 6131A hour angle during 1975-1992 and 4422A hour angle from 1992 to 2003, which resulted in a significant decrease in the country of H2O organic structures, flora, cultivated countries and wetlands/lowland. The dramatic old termexpansion of the urbannext term countries of Dhaka exhibited clear spatio-temporal differences. The transition of H2O organic structures, flora and low-lying countries to old termurban landnext term has caused extende d and varied environmental debasement in the survey country, and the exposure to implosion therapy and the growing of slums have been the chief negative results associated with the rapid old termurbannext term development. old termUrban land expansionnext term has been mostly driven by lift, population growing and economic development. Integrated usage of GIS, RS and socio-economic informations could therefore be efficaciously used to understand the spatial and temporal kineticss of LULC old termchanges.next term The reading and categorization of RS informations were utile for gauging the rate and spacial form of the old termurban expansionnext term in Greater Dhaka of Bangladesh. As dependable and current informations are missing for Bangladesh, the old termlandnext term usage maps produced in this survey will lend to both the development of sustainable old termurban landnext term usage planning determinations and besides for calculating possible hereafter old termchangesnext term in growing forms. How to cite Changes And Urban Expansion In Greater Dhaka Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

Elizabeth and the Woodvilles Essay Example For Students

Elizabeth and the Woodvilles Essay Throughout the play Richard III, the various facets of the main character Richard emerge and are displayed to the reader in a number of ways. Fixated on his goal of becoming King, Richards behaviour and remarks seem to centre on this obsession. This becomes evident to the reader from the opening soliloquy, in which Richard uses a well-used technique of his, pathos, to try and generate pity from the reader/audience. Richard uses this technique on a number of occasions, using his deformities as a way to gain the upper hand against his enemies. For example, in the very opening soliloquy, he uses his deformities as an excuse for his evil, And therefore, since I cannot prove a lover To entertain these well-spoken days, Then I am determined to prove a villain 1 Richard again uses his deformities as ammunition in an argument against the Woodvilles, the royal family, whilst also exhibiting to the reader his acting skills, pretending with mock horror that he is disgusted at Elizabeth and the Woodvilles for implying that Richard hates her and her family, Because I cannot flatter and look fair, Smile in mens faces, smooth, deceive and cog I must be held a rancorous enemy. 2 Richards frequent use of his acting skills also enables him to convince many people many times throughout the play that he is something that he is not. For example, Richard and Buckingham play-act in front of the Mayor in an attempt to frighten him into thinking that an attack is imminent on the Tower of London, Lord Mayor Look to the drawbridge there! Hark, a drum! Catesby, oerlook the walls! Lord Mayor, the reason we have sent Look back, defend thee, here are enemies! 3. Another example of Richards clever acting is shown to the reader before Richard accepts the throne, when he intentionally lets himself be spotted reading a prayer book by Buckingham, in an attempt to appear saintly and modest, And see, a book of prayer in his hand, True ornaments to know a holy man 4 During this very same act, he pretends to be reluctant to take to the throne, adopting the attitude of a humble, ordinary man who does not want such power and responsibility. He even goes as far as to say that he believes he is unfit to become King, arguing again that his deformities prevent him from achieving what he wants, Yet so much is my poverty of spirit, So mighty and so many my defects, That I would rather hide from my greatness 5 The reader may sense almost a double irony at this statement, as by this point in the play the reader should have formed the opinion that Richard really isnt fit to become King. Richard takes a risk by making this statement, as he must be well aware of the unrest that he is causing and the enemies that he is making throughout the play. Richard takes many risks throughout the play, risks that are fuelled by Richards desire to gain power. Shakespeare portrays Richards burning desire to become King as bordering on the insane, and this is exemplified by the enormous risk Richard takes when he gives Anne the chance to kill him, Lo, here I lend thee this sharp-pointed sword I lay it naked to the deadly stroke And humbly beg the death upon my knee 6 Richard demonstrates to the reader during this scene his manipulative skills and his wonderful command of the English language, using his power of words to bring Anne under his spell, Look how my ring encompasseth thy finger, Even so thy breast encloseth my poor heart 7. .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .postImageUrl , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:hover , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:visited , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:active { border:0!important; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:active , .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u69ddf35d29d1415c1b8be1ada0c5bcbc:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Outset of Hard Times EssayRichard also uses flattery in this scene as he manipulates Anne, once again using his quick wittedness and his way with words, Teach not thy lip for such scorn, for it was made For kissing, lady, not for such contempt. 8 During this scene Richard also exhibits the first signs of his arrogance, as, having succeeded in wooing Anne, he proceeds to brag to the reader in a soliloquy about his brilliance, implying that he thinks people are disposable, Was ever woman in this humur wooed? Was ever woman in this humour won? Ill have her, but I will not keep her long. 9. This soliloquy also shows Richards darker side, as he clearly shows no remorse for the murders that he has committed, What, I that killed her husband and his father And yet to win her, all the world to nothing! Ha! 10 Richards mocking and sardonic tone that he adopts throughout most of this scene is characteristic of the way he behaves, and although the terrible things that Richard as done far outweighs the good, the audience cannot help but marvel at the strange humour of the man, and his character remains deeply absorbing throughout the entire play, as more facets of his character are revealed.